BruneiBrunei Darussalam

Chinese records mention a trading state on Borneo's north-west coast, often identified as early Brunei, from around the 10th century, sending tribute to the Chinese court. By the 15th century its rulers had converted to Islam, and the sultanate grew wealthy on trade in camphor, spices and jungle products.

Under Sultan Bolkiah, around 1500, Brunei was at its height. Its influence ran along the coasts of Borneo and north into the Philippines; the name Borneo itself probably comes from Brunei. Spanish forces briefly captured the capital in 1578 in the Castilian War.

Civil wars in the 17th century and rival powers wore the state down. In the 19th century Brunei ceded Sarawak piece by piece to James Brooke, an English adventurer who became Rajah in 1841, and gave northern territory to the British North Borneo Company. The Limbang district, taken by Sarawak in 1890, split the remaining country into two parts, which is why Temburong is separated from the rest.

In 1888 Brunei became a British protectorate, and from 1906 a British Resident advised the Sultan on everything except religion and Malay custom. Without that arrangement the sultanate would probably have been absorbed entirely.

Oil was struck at Seria in 1929 by the British Malayan Petroleum Company, a forerunner of Brunei Shell. Offshore gas followed in the 1960s and 1970s. Oil and gas transformed a poor protectorate into a state that could provide free health care, education and subsidised housing, and charge no personal income tax.

Japan occupied Brunei in 1941–45 and the oil fields were fought over and burned. After the war Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III, the current Sultan's father, pushed for a constitution, granted in 1959.

In December 1962 the leftist Brunei People's Party, which had won elections, backed an armed revolt against the monarchy and against joining the planned Malaysian federation. British Gurkha troops put it down within days. The state of emergency declared then has been renewed ever since, and there have been no national elections.

Brunei stayed out of Malaysia in 1963, partly over oil revenue and the Sultan's status. Hassanal Bolkiah became Sultan in 1967, and full independence came on 1 January 1984; National Day is celebrated on 23 February.

Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB), Malay Islamic Monarchy, is the national philosophy taught in schools and applied across government. It holds that Brunei is a Malay nation, guided by Islam, under a monarch who is its protector.

The Sultan is head of state and of government and also holds the posts of prime minister, finance, defence and foreign minister. A Legislative Council is appointed. Loyalty to the monarch is public and visible, from portraits in every shop to celebrations on his birthday on 15 July.

Since 2014 Brunei has phased in a Sharia Penal Code that applies alongside the common-law system. It covers matters such as dress, fasting, alcohol and sexual conduct; some provisions apply to non-Muslims. After international criticism in 2019 the Sultan extended a moratorium on the death penalty.

For visitors, MIB shows up in practical ways: no alcohol for sale, Friday midday closures, strict Ramadan rules, modest dress and a calm, orderly public life.

Brunei has about 460,000 people. About two-thirds are Malay, including groups such as the Kedayan, Tutong and Belait who are officially counted as Malay; about 10 per cent are Chinese; and indigenous Dusun, Murut and Iban live in the interior. Many workers come from Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and South Asia.

Kampong Ayer, the water village on stilts in the Brunei River, was the capital for centuries; early European visitors called it the Venice of the East. Thousands of people still live there, in houses linked by boardwalks, with schools, mosques, clinics and a fire station, and commute to the mainland by water taxi.

Citizenship is hard to acquire, and many long-term Chinese residents are permanent residents without it. The state is the main employer, and public-sector jobs, pensions and subsidies shape expectations.

Family life is close and religious. Weddings, Hari Raya open houses and communal prayers are major events, and people from all backgrounds are invited to Hari Raya visits.

About 80 per cent of Bruneians are Muslim, of the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam. The five daily prayers, broadcast from mosques, set the rhythm of the day; on Fridays businesses close from about noon to two for congregational prayer.

The two great mosques are national symbols. The Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque (1958) rises from an artificial lagoon with a golden dome and a stone ceremonial barge; the Jame' Asr Hassanil Bolkiah Mosque (1994), built for the Sultan's 25th year on the throne, has 29 golden domes, one for each sultan.

Ramadan transforms the country. Daytime is quiet and restaurants close or serve takeaway only; at dusk, tamu (markets) sell food for the breaking of the fast. Hari Raya Aidilfitri follows, with days of open houses, including at the palace.

Buddhists, Christians and others worship freely in their own buildings, but proselytising is banned and public Christmas celebrations are restricted.

Bruneian food is Malay at its core. Ambuyat, a glue-like starch from the sago palm eaten with bamboo forks and sour dips, is the national dish and a shared meal. Nasi katok, a paper parcel of rice, fried chicken and sambal, is the everyday snack, and night markets are where families eat out.

Crafts include kain tenunan, cloth woven with gold and silver thread, and brassware; Brunei's bronze cannons and kettles were once used as currency and bride-price.

About 70 per cent of Brunei is still forest, much of it primary, because oil money removed the need for large-scale logging and plantations. Ulu Temburong National Park protects a large block of lowland rainforest reachable only by longboat.

The Heart of Borneo agreement with Malaysia and Indonesia aims to protect the island's central forests, and Brunei's forests are some of the best-kept in Borneo.